Voting centres across Venezuela's capital city appeared largely empty during elections on Sunday despite assurances from government officials that millions had turned out to vote by mid-morning.
Poll workers at a voting centre in San Agustin, a pro-government stronghold in Caracas, said less than a fifth of the 1,916 registered voters had cast a ballot, but they expected a mid-day surge.
Information Minister Jorge Rodriguez said about 2.5 million people had voted by 10 a.m.
Earlier, President Nicolas Maduro cast his ballot in an election that sees him seeking a six-year term, but is condemned by foes as the coronation of a dictator and likely to bring fresh foreign sanctions.
With the mainstream opposition boycotting the election, two of his most popular rivals barred from standing and state institutions in loyalists' hands, the 55-year-old former bus driver is expected to win despite his unpopularity.
That could trigger oil sanctions from the U.S. government, and more censure from the European Union and Latin America.
Polls indicate Maduro is favoured to win thanks to a boycott of the election by his main rivals amid huge distrust of the nation's electoral council, which is controlled by government loyalists.
The self-described "son" of Hugo Chavez says he is battling an "imperialist" plot to crush socialism and take over the OPEC nation's oil wealth. But opponents say the leftist leader has destroyed Venezuela's once-wealthy economy and ruthlessly crushed dissent.
More than one million Venezuelans have abandoned their country for a better life abroad in recent years, while those staying behind wait in line for hours to buy subsidized food and withdraw cash that's almost impossible to find.
Maduro's main challenger is former state governor Henri Falcon, who predicts an upset on the back of some polls showing him ahead and widespread fury among Venezuela's 30 million people at the collapse of their economy.
Canada calls election 'illegitimate'
The more than 5,000 Venezuelan citizens living in Canada are prevented from taking part in the vote, a spokesperson for Global Affairs Canada has confirmed.
"Canada will not be authorizing the opening of polling stations in Venezuelan diplomatic missions in Canada, due to the illegitimacy of these elections," the department said in a statement Saturday.
"The Maduro regime's unwillingness to allow all political actors to participate freely and fully, and to allow for a free press, is deplorable," the department said.
"The Maduro regime has made no attempt to ensure the election meets international standards of freedom and fairness. We will make no apologies for calling this election what it is: illegitimate," it said.
Venezuela's Foreign Minister Jorge Arreaza has called Canada's decision hostile and has urged the government to reconsider.
Rebecca Sarfatti of the Canada Venezuela Democracy Forum has been helping organize the Venezuelan-Canadian community during elections for years. This is the first time she has refused to participate, she told CBC News.
"It's a void election, because it was called by an illegal entity. There's no accordance with Venezuelan law. There's no transparency … I could not be part of that," she said.
The United States, European Union and many Latin American countries have said they won't recognize the results.